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Polls have officially closed at 5pm (14:00 GMT).

Turkey does not have exit polls, but preliminary results are expected to come within hours of polls closing.

There have been several alleged incidents of voting irregularities across Turkey, including accusations of attacks on ballot observers and at least one report of a dead woman listed as eligible to vote.

Aynur Usta said her mother, who died eight years ago, appeared on the voter list in Istanbul’s Bahcelievler suburb.

“We haven’t encountered such a situation in the elections held since 2015,” she told the BirGun newspaper.

Voting irregularities are not uncommon in Turkish elections, but are usually isolated incidents occurring in rural areas. In the southeastern province of Sanliurfa, one of the areas affected by February’s earthquakes, several breaches of election law were reported by observers.

Lawyer Ronayi Paydas said legal observers had been attacked in Yazlica, a village near the Syrian border, after they tried to stop more than one person at a time people entering the voting booth.

Görevli olduğumuz bölgelerden Akçakale Yazlıca kırsal mahallesindeyiz. Burda toplu oy kullanımını engellerken hem biz hem de sandık görevlilerimiz saldırıya uğradık, tehdit ve hakaretlere maruz kaldık.
Şu an can güvenliğimiz olmadığı için, suç duyurusu ve şikayet için köyden… pic.twitter.com/3bzZ63WsK8

— Ronayi PAYDAŞ (@ronayipaydas) May 28, 2023

Elsewhere in the earthquake zone, two observers in Hatay said they were beaten after witnessing similar irregularities.

Alleged breaches were also reported in Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir, Turkey’s three largest cities. In Izmir, former opposition lawmaker Erdal Aksunger alleged ballot papers that had been pre-stamped to show a vote for Erdogan.

It was not possible to verify the accounts.

İzmir’de tespit edilen iki olay daha !

Karabağlar ilçesi, Aydınoğlu Mehmet bey ilköğretim okulu,
1394 nolu sandık.
Ve,

Konak, Eşrefpaşa, 80. Yıl ilkokulu,
2146 nolu sandık.

Boş olması gereken zarfların içinden Erdoğan tercihli pusula çıkmış !

Tutanak ekte.. pic.twitter.com/E9ZlGy7SzA

— Erdal Aksünger (@EAksunger) May 28, 2023

In the early morning, voter turnout was low in Turkey’s southern city of Gaziantep, an electoral stronghold, due to rain but it eventually improved, according to Al Jazeera’s Amr Halabi.

“Voters here, and in southern Turkey in general, are quite concerned about the refugee issue,” Halabi said.

In a speech attended by about 100,000 supporters, Erdogan had earlier condemned what he called “hate speech” promoted by the opposition.

He was referring to the hardened anti-refugee and migrant stance Kilicdaroglu adopted before the run-off.

The office of Istanbul’s chief public prosecutor has launched an investigation into social media accounts that allegedly spread misinformation and provocative posts, according to state-run TRT.

Among the Twitter accounts named were Haber Report, DarkWeb Haber, Militer Doktrin, Muhbir (ajansmuhbir) and Solcu Gazete.

Erdogan supporters at Istanbul’s polls are confident that the president would secure a third term in office.

“He surprised everyone in the first round and I think this time he will easily win with more than 55 percent of the vote,” said Murat Sark, referring to the first round that saw Erdogan defy opinion poll predictions to gather the most votes.

“Everyone knows that we need a strong leader to get us out of the bad economy we are in,” the 45-year-old added after casting his ballot in Uskudar. “Tayyip Erdogan is the only leader who can represent Turkey on the world stage and look after our interests.”

Referring to the 87 percent turnout in the first round, Sark said Turkey was “showing that we are the biggest democracy in the world”. He added: “We have had one party for 21 years. This is the important thing that has made us so successful.”

Syrians who have experienced the horror of war firsthand eagerly await news from the Turkish presidential run-off, Al Jazeera’s Nour Qormosh reports from Idlib, a province in northwestern Syria.

Many in the area, which borders Turkey, have family members across the border and want to know how the elections will affect them, Qormosh said.

“I have many relatives living in Turkey and working to support their families here [in Idlib]. The calls we are hearing about deporting Syrians who are living there would have very bad consequences, especially on a humanitarian scale,” Muhammed Ramadan, a displaced Syrian, told Al Jazeera.

Ramadan, like other displaced Syrians, has been supported by humanitarian aid coming through the northern Turkish border, but he fears that it might disappear for good.

“No matter who wins, we hope Turkey’s approach will not follow the approach of deporting Syrians, which will have dire future consequences for the humanitarian sector here as more than 1.8 million people are already living in refugee camps,” Abd Al Salam, a manager of a camp in Idlib for displaced people, told Al Jazeera.

Erdogan has distributed money and toys at the school where he cast his vote in Istanbul, as he often does on election days.

Erdoğan’ın Üsküdar’da oyunu kullandığı okulun önünde oyuncak ve para dağıttığı görüntüler. pic.twitter.com/mKBNTm25eZ

— Burcu Uğur (@_BurcuUgur_) May 28, 2023

Translation: “Images of Erdogan handing out toys and money in front of the school where he voted in Uskudar.”

Erdoğan, oy kullanmak için gittiği okulda çocuklara para dağıttı.

— Aykırı (@aykiricomtr) May 14, 2023

Translation: “Erdogan distributed money to children at the school where he went to vote.”

A bride and a groom dressed in their wedding clothes were among millions of voters who headed to the polls for Turkey’s presidential run-off.

Ozge Coban, 23, and Ismail Coban, 24, cast their votes at a polling station in Duzce before they went to their wedding ceremony.

The deputy leader of Turkey’s main opposition party said its election observer was attacked in the village of Karaali in the southeastern Turkish province of Sanliurfa.

Ozgur Ozel tweeted that the CHP’s election observer, Ali Seker, was beaten and had his phone broken because he pointed out election irregularities.

The deputy leader also said that there were not enough security forces present, and urged authorities to ensure the security of the election.

It was not possible to independently verify the allegation.

İstanbul Milletvekilimiz Ali Şeker, ilk turda bütün oyların kullanıldığı ve tek adaya çıktığı Şanlıurfa’nın Eyyübiye ilçesi Karaali köyünde görev yapıyor.

Kadınların yerine oy kullanılması gibi usulsüzlüklere itiraz ettiği için müşahitlerimizle darp edildi, telefonları kırıldı.

— Özgür Özel (@eczozgurozel) May 28, 2023

Translation: “Our Istanbul Parliament Representative Ali Seker, is on duty at Karaali village in the Eyyubiye district of Sanliurfa, the only place where all votes were cast in the first round and given to a single candidate. He was assaulted and had his phone broken for objecting to irregularities, such as some men voting in the place of women.”

A Turkish voter has appeared at a polling station in Adana, in southern Turkey, dressed in a Spiderman costume.

Earlier videos shared on social media showed cats, dogs and even a lamb accompanying a voter at polling station.

🕸 Adana’da bir vatandaş ”örümcek adam” kostümüyle oy kullandı. pic.twitter.com/Twk8xaABPW

— gdh (@gundemedairhs) May 28, 2023

Translation: A citizen in Adana votes in a Spider-Man costume.

Meral Aksener, leader of the Good (IYI) Party has called on people to head to the ballot boxes in support of a democratic Turkey.

She told people in a post on Twitter to vote for a united country, rather than one that is polarised and divided.

“Let’s protect our democracy together,” she wrote on Twitter.

“Sen, ben, o” değil, milletçe “biz” olabilmek için tüm vatandaşlarımızı sandıklara davet ediyorum.

Gelin, hep birlikte demokrasimize sahip çıkalım, kazanan Türkiye olsun! #OyKullan 🗳️🇹🇷

— Meral Akşener (@meral_aksener) May 28, 2023

Translation: “I invite all our citizens to go to the ballot boxes in order create an ‘us’ nation, not ‘you, me, him’. Let’s protect our democracy together, let Türkiye be the winner!”

Famous Turkish actor Cem Yilmaz has endorsed opposition candidate Kemal Kilicdaroglu in a post on Twitter.

“In the second round, my vote goes to Kemal as president,” he wrote above a photo of Kilicdaroglu saluting.

Sürpriz ! 2.turda oyum Kemal başkana. Siyasetten hoşlanmamak ile vatandaşlık görevi sorumluluğu aynı şey değil.Gençler en önemli vatandaşlık görevinizi lütfen yerine getirin oy kullanın .Sandık başında görevli ter döken tüm fedakar arkadaşlarımıza da ayrıca kolaylıklar diliyor… https://t.co/vkVJfd07On

— Cem Yılmaz (@CMYLMZ) May 22, 2023

Translation: Surprise! In the second round, my vote is Kemal as president. Disliking politics versus your civic duty is not the same thing. Young people, please fulfil your civic duty by voting.

Erdogan has visited his parents’ graves at the Karacaahmet Cemetery, shortly after casting his vote at an Istanbul polling station.

Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan, Karacaahmet Mezarlığı’ndaki anne ve babasının kabirlerini ziyaret etti. pic.twitter.com/f7EZzqnNik

— gdh (@gundemedairhs) May 28, 2023

Translation: President Erdogan visits the graves of his parents in the Karacaahmet Cemetery.

At a polling station in Uskudar, a district on Istanbul’s Asian shore, election observers are reporting a downturn in turnout.

“Turnout is about 30 percent less than it was at this time of day two weeks ago,” said Eylul Ataol, a lawyer covering voting at the Halil Rustu Primary School.

Uskudar, a traditionally conservative neighbourhood with a significant student population, voted for Kilicdaroglu by a margin of about 4 percentage points in the first round.

“Everything is calm and voting is going quicker than in the first round because there’s only one ballot paper for people to deal with,” said Dogus Yaman, another legal observer at the station, where about 1,800 voters are registered.

If Erdogan wins by a small margin, there may be some policy changes, Seda Demiralp, associate professor at Isik University, told Al Jazeera.

The incremental changes would be in the areas of the economy, women’s rights and freedom of expression, due to the incumbent’s parliamentary majority, the professor added.

Erdogan’s popularity among Turkish women, meanwhile, has continued despite his opponent’s appeal.

“The economic situation in Turkey undermined the votes for Erdogan, but not as much as expected,” said Demiralp.

German-Turkish footballer Mesut Ozil has posted a video clip on Twitter of a song dedicated by university students to Erdogan.

The song titled “Come on, President, make us smile again” was performed and produced by students a few days ahead of the vote in a show of support for Erdogan.

🇹🇷❤️ pic.twitter.com/iW6gmaLnQf

— Mesut Özil (@M10) May 28, 2023

Ozlem Mollamehmetoglu and Bahar Cuhadar, both 42, are sipping coffee at the grounds of a school-turned-polling station in Istanbul’s Moda neighbourhood while taking a break from their duties as election observers.

“Everything is fine here so far today but this is Moda so we don’t expect anything to happen,” says Mollamehmetoglu, referring to the disputes seen between rival supporters at some ballot boxes around the country in the first round.

Moda is an upmarket, secular neighbourhood on Istanbul’s Asian side.

“Last time it got very busy later in the day and there were queues but so far it is fairly calm,” said Mollamehmetoglu.

Cuhadar added: “There’s a steady flow of people and it will get busier later. Maybe we will see a bigger turnout than last time, maybe not. Either way, it is good to see people haven’t got tired of voting and are doing their democratic duty.”

Ballot boxes have been taken to homes so people who are sick, elderly or living with a disability can vote.

Among those who voted from their homes was Sumeyye Sahin, 18, from the southeastern province of Adiyaman.

The run-off will test the candidates’ ability to bring in voters, Hakan Akbas, a senior adviser at Albright Stonebrigdge group and a political commentator, told Al Jazeera.

One million people alone did not vote in Istanbul, Erdogan’s stronghold, Akbas said, while the overseas voter turnout was also a few points higher than the first round vote.

Meanwhile, the Kurdish vote remains crucial for the opposition, he added.

In Istanbul’s Moda neighbourhood, voters stop for a chat with friends outside the polling stations.

Suma Demirkaya, 69, said she came early to Moda Primary School to avoid the queues seen two weeks ago.

“I wanted to come early before the rush,” she told Al Jazeera. “It’s unusual for us to vote again just two weeks after the first vote but it’s necessary.”

While supporting the opposition candidate, she said she was not sure of the outcome.

“We were all surprised last time that Erdogan got the most votes but we will see what happens today.”

Jokes abound on social media that the cats photographed at polling stations are there to monitor the vote.

Cats are widely loved and cared for across Turkey, on the streets, in shops and cafes as well as in homes.

Istanbul, which has a sizeable cat population, is also often referred to as “Catstanbul”.

People across Turkey are casting their ballots in the country’s presidential election run-off.

Here is all you need to know, in just 400 words.

The politicians cast their votes from Istanbul and Ankara.

Erdogan had a message to get the vote out as he cast his vote in Istanbul, greeting supporters and calling on Turks to vote.

“I think the vote-counting process will be very fast today. It is important to see such elections for the presidency for the Turkish democracy,” the incumbent said after voting.

“Participation at 90 percent is typical in the first round. Turkey affirmed its adherence to democracy with a 90 percent participation in the elections … We appeal to voters to go to the polls and adhere to democracy,” he also said.

Kilicdaroglu has voted at Argentina Primary School in the Turkish capital, Ankara.

“In order to get rid of the tyrannical regime and in order to establish real democracy, I appeal to all citizens to go to the polling stations.

“These elections are taking place under difficult conditions due to attempts at deception, but I believe that citizens are free and willing to go to the polls,” Erdogan’s rival said after voting.

Translation: Press release.

A Turkish man has arrived on a hospital bed to cast his vote at a polling station, cheered and applauded by onlookers.

Social media users shared videos of the man as he entered the station with the help of paramedics.

Erdogan and his wife have arrived at Uskudar Saffet Celebi High School school to cast their votes, Al Jazeera’s Sinem Koseoglu reported from Istanbul.

Crowds cheered the incumbent as he made his way into the polling station in the Uskudar neighbourhood, said Al Jazeera’s Omar Lavi.

Translation: #BREAKINGNEWS President Erdogan casts his ballot in Uskudar.

Sinan Ogan, who came third in the first-round vote, has voted at Kocatepe Mimar Kemal Anadolu High School in the capital, Ankara.

The nationalist politician, who eventually endorsed Erdogan, was dubbed “kingmaker” for his potential to influence the second-round vote.

Translation: #LastMinute | Sinan Ogan voted: I hope that this election will bring stability to our country and we will contribute to this.

Results for the presidential run-off are expected earlier compared to the first round.

Ahmet Yener, chairman of the Supreme Election Board, explained in a televised statement that counting took longer on May 14 because the ballot included 24 parties running for parliament and four candidates for president.

A broadcast ban on announcing results is likely to be lifted around 6:30pm local time (15:30 GMT).